Outline the processes of evolution Essay Example for Free

Outline the processes of evolution Essay Outline the processes of evolution and explain how theory of mind is an adaptation resulting from the selective forces that have operated during evolution. Evolutionary psychologists endeavour to understand how animal and human behaviour evolved and the adaptive functions that these behaviours would have had over time. They reflect on ultimate explanations and look for the reasons why such phenomena exist and how this helps to ensure that our genes (the structures containing DNA sequences) are passed to future generations through the process of sexual reproduction. Evolutionary psychology is concerned with identifying which behaviours and psychological traits are adaptive and the function which the latter fulfil. Evolutionary psychologists do not, therefore, look for causal explanations regarding behaviour, but are concerned instead with functional explanations. By researching evolved characteristics and abilities they try to uncover within the processes of evolution how the human mind works, and ultimately how societies function. They conclude that our current physiology and psychology still demonstrate a decisive interplay between adaptations and environments on an evolutionary timescale (Clegg, 2007 pp. 161-2). The theory of evolution is in the most part derived from the work of Charles Darwin (1809-1892). Following many years of painstaking research, most notably surrounding his study of species of the Galapagos Islands, he arrived at the theory that species have gradually evolved from common ancestors. He researched the possible processes through which evolutionary change could have occurred and argued that there is a strong relationship between genes and environment, whereby genes that allow for traits most suited to dealing with changes in the environment will be selected for. Darwin recognized how important sexual reproduction (where genes are passed to the next generation) is for creating variation, and that inherited characteristics and genetic variation are open to random changes. However, the forces of natural selection have effect on these changes enabling the mechanisms that ensure the organism is better able to survive within their environment are selected for, and consequently more likely to be passed onto the next generation. The processes of selection occur over extremely long periods of time. Hominoids (the family containing primates) evolved around 22 to 31 million years ago, with humans appearing very recently on the evolutionary timescale somewhere between 150,000-200,000 years ago. We should note also that since it is the genes that endure over time, selection refers not to the survival of the individual or indeed of the species, but to the survival of the genes. Evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins noted that People act as vehicles to contain the genes, and these are passed on when they reproduce (as cited in Clegg 2007, p 121). Humans, being highly social creatures, require psychological mechanisms that enable them to successfully interact within the social environment. For example, being able to guess what another person is thinking in order to predict how they might behave, or understanding others behaviour so as to be responsive to their feelings, or even being capable of deceit are all highly useful abilities for social interaction. In an evolutionary context, these social skills and empathy with others would have greatly improved an individuals survival chances and/or reproductive success, ultimately increasing the chances of his genes passing onto the next generation. Such traits would have been a positive asset to the species as a whole. As psychologist Simon Baron-Cohen explained by being able to predict one anothers behaviour, two individuals can work together more effectively thereby improving survival chances (As cited in Clegg 2007, p. 133). Our ancestors who possessed such characteristics would have had a great advantage over those who did not. Thus in accordance with Darwins theory these abilities, over time, would have been selected for. The ability to predict and explain the actions both of oneself and of others, and the ability to mentally put oneself in the place of another is known as theory of mind. It is associated with the ability to manipulate and influence others within a social context both in a positive and in a negative way. These abilities are essential in gaining social status and resources, forming alliances and obtaining sexual partners. Ultimately, they are greatly significant in the role they play in reproductive success and our continued survival as a species. Theory of mind interests evolutionary psychologists because it is fundamentally relevant to modern human behaviour. Psychologists are particularly concerned with its evolution and its role, hence much research has been carried out involving children, those diagnosed as autistic, and non-human primates in order to develop upon hypotheses. Evidence collected from research involving these groups has led psychologists to better understand theory of mind and its functions. A large amount of studies on the aforementioned three groups involve testing deception and false beliefs using a version of the Maxi test devised by Wimmer and Perner (1983). However, there are more modern experiments which have revealed evidence of theory of mind in children as young as 2 years old. Further evidence in the form of archaeological findings, such as signs of burial rituals and evidence of art production has been uncovered. The ability to create imaginary images or the notion of an afterlife would suggest that our ancestors were able to conceptualize the thoughts and beliefs of others. Research evidence from experiments carried out involving children from many different societies and cultures shows that theory of mind is universal, and consequently indicates that it may be an evolved adaptation. Much of the research suggests that it may have evolved because it effected human interaction within social environments which would have benefited humans and their offspring. Those who displayed a strong theory of mind are likely to have improved their chances of survival by increasing their social status, or they may have used deception, or plan ahead to their advantage in order to gain more resources. They may have been able to negotiate dangerous situations by predicting others behaviour, or those with a highly developed theory of mind may have had more success regarding sexual reproduction. We can say then that theory of mind is an intrinsic element of our humanness, with evidence suggesting that its adaptive function is a result of the selective forces of evolution. It is all about enhancing social relationships; a perspective that is supported by a number of researchers (Baron-Cohen, 1999; Byrne and Whiten, 1997; Dunbar, 2003) (As cited in Clegg 2007, p. 138). Theory of mind as a psychological mechanism has been a highly influential factor to the developmental progress of the human race, and unequivocally instrumental to the success of the species.

Possession in The Exorcist Essay -- The Exorcist

Being Possessed The idea of possession can frighten many people. What horror movie producers and directors that go into this field are counting on is that they can use it to frighten their viewers. The Exorcist and The Exorcist Beginning both are centered on the act of exorcism. Both demoniacs in the films are women though their fates are polar opposites. The exorcisms are also shown in different lights. This is done through special effects as well as lighting and music. The first film in the series stays with a cut and dry method of keeping mainly to the exorcism itself; however, its prequel focuses more on fancy special effects and stimulating music. The newest addition to The Exorcist series also adds in the usual Hollywood love story present in most films in our time. Prequels tend to also serve the purpose of story building, regardless of how new it is. In this case it has the duty of creating and explaining the character of Merrin. The success of both The Exorcist and The Exorcist Beg inning was not only due to the story line, but also the mystery of it as well as its acceptance in society and the church. The exorcism itself, such as the effects and the overall focus on it were portrayed differently within The Exorcist and The Exorcist Beginning in accordance with the view from society in general and their expectations on how a movie should be done. The rite of exorcism dates back many centuries. It is a practice not only practiced in Christianity but in Pagan religions as well. The main difference between the two is that Pagan exorcists rely on their own power to expel the demons rather then the Christians drawing their power directly from God to do the job (Baker, 137). This power was given to the Christia... ...new technology back then. Movies have now been mandated by the movie making industry to take on new twists, however. The Exorcist Beginning, being the prequel to the first of the series, had to pull something new to get the viewers it needed for success. Therefore, Harlin put in the notorious love story to add a special little twist to our emotion. This in conjunction with the development of Merrin, puts the actual exorcism out of the spot light. Thus, showing how movies have been changed over time with the change in wants from society. As their wants for a good movie change, so must the actual film to acquire success. The Exorcist and The Exorcist Beginning both followed the expectations of society for their respective filming eras to become very successful movies, having their success fueled by the mixed views and conceptions of both the church and society.

Mngt 5000 Term Paper

MNGT 5000 May 14, 2010 Term Paper There are many issues that companies face every day that could potentially be managed in a different way. The issue that I would like to review is an issue that is in the forefront of the news these days. It is hard to say when there might be some sort of resolution to this issue, based on the size and impact to the environment and economy. The most recent issue occurred on April 20, 2010. This was when the Deepwater Horizon oil rig exploded and sunk into the Gulf of Mexico 2 days later. Along with this explosion, there were 11 people reported missing and are assumed dead.The larger problem that British Petroleum has experienced since this explosion is a blow out preventer (BOP) that failed. This failed BOP has caused a horrible oil leak that is gushing from the ocean floor. The initial estimates were that the leak would be around 1,000 barrels or 42,000 gallons per day. This number has since skyrocketed from the initial estimates. As of May 13, this number is now thought to be as high as 70,000 barrels per day, or 2,940,000 gallons. With the amount of oil that is leaking into the Gulf of Mexico from this incident give it the potential to be the worst oil spill in US history.The previous largest oil spill in US history was the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill that occurred on March 24, 1989. As a comparison, the Valdez spill lost 250,000 barrels of oil, or 10,500,000 gallons. It was not until 1992 that the clean up from this spill was completed. From the estimated numbers, the current spill will eclipse the Valdez spill in only a matter of days. Given the fact that the Valdez spill took 3 years to clean up, we can only speculate as to how long it might take to clean up the effects of the Deepwater Horizon. The main problem that BP is immediately faced with is how to control and stop the Deepwater Horizon leak.There have been many suggestions as to what approach they should take. British Petroleum has had to utilize the planning process a nd try to implement several different strategies since April 22, 2010. While the typical planning process might take several weeks or months, BP had to speed this process up. Their goal is to try and minimize the impact to the Gulf of Mexico and the surrounding environment. Planning is necessary to help drive a structured process for making decisions about the goal they are trying to reach. There are 6 main steps involved in a formal planning process.The first step in the planning process is situational analysis. This first step most likely started for BP on April 20th after the explosion happened. This is when all relevant information about the plan is gathered, interpreted and summarized. For this situation, it most likely included studying past events, the current conditions and trying to forecast future events. The next step in the planning process is to review alternative goals and plans that might have been identified through the situational analysis. A goal is a certain targe t that is set by a manager that they hope to reach.The alternative goal that BP needs to try to achieve as quickly as possible is to stop the leak that is gushing from the ocean floor. The book Management: Leading & Collaborating in the Competitive World outlines a very helpful acronym to ensure you gather certain qualities in the goals you set. The acronym identified is SMART. This stands for Specific, Measureable, Attainable, Relevant and Time-bound. There are parts of this acronym that are a little more sensitive for BP than some of the other pieces. The time bound is the part that sticks out in my mind.The longer it takes to contain the leak from the ocean floor, the larger the impact to the environment and to BP financially. As of May 13, the oil has been leaking from the Deepwater Horizon site for 24 days. It appears that BP has come up with many alternative plans to try and address and contain the oil leak that the failed BOP has created. Next we will review the different pla ns that BP has established and how some of them have been working so far. A plan is defined as how the management staff plans to achieve the outlined goals. BP has presented several plans that they will use to try and achieve their goal.The first plan that they will try to implement is to lower a containment box over the leak that will then funnel the oil to the surface and into an oil tanker. This will be the quickest option that they can try to put in place to stop the leak. Another option that they will try to implement at the same time is to drill a relief well, but this could take up to 3 months to complete. Once the alternatives have been reviewed, we move to step three which is to evaluate the goals and plan. All of this planning has to be completed in a very tight time frame for BP, because as the time passes, the oil continues to leak.During this step, management will review the advantages and disadvantages of the alternative goals and plan from step 2. The drilling of a re lief well has a huge disadvantage due to the time frame. This step also includes prioritizing and potentially eliminating some of the goals. Step 4 is the Goal and Plan Selection. After having reviewed and prioritized the goals in the last step, this is where the decision will actually be made on which goal and plan is most feasible. After the selection has been made, the following step is to implement plans to achieve the goals that have been outlined.As of May 7, British Petroleum has started to implement their plan of lowering a container over the leaking well. Once everything is implemented, the final step is to monitor and control the work that is being done. The container was successfully lowered into place, however ice crystals started to form and blocked the pipe that would deliver the oil to the surface. BP has now had to resort to some of their back up or alternative plans. Some other ideas that have been presented in this process include using a smaller containment dome, shooting junk into the well to clog the hole, and siphoning the oil into a tanker at the surface.With these different plans in place, BP will have to ensure that they have a good strategy if another alternate fails. The definition of strategy is a pattern of actions and resource allocations designed to achieve the organization’s goals. Planning and strategy go hand in hand. BP will need to use some strategic management in dealing with this situation. Strategic management is basically a strategic planning process that has six major steps. The first step is to establish a mission, vision and goals. The mission is short statement that describes the purpose of the organization.The vision is what the organization hopes to accomplish in the future. BP has their company mission and vision statement listed on their site as their values. The sites states â€Å"BP wants to be recognized as a great company – competitively successful and a force for progress. We have a fundamenta l belief that we can make a difference in the world. We help the world meet its growing need for heat, light and mobility. We strive to do that by producing energy that is affordable, secure and doesn’t damage the environment.BP is progressive, responsible, innovative and performance driven. † The second step in this process is to do an analysis of external opportunities and threats. This includes understanding the different forces that might affect the company’s mission and vision. This is a unique situation for BP, due to the fact that they are trying to live up to their values, while trying to prevent an environmental disaster that could potentially tarnish their name for quite some time. After reviewing external factors, step 3 is to complete an analysis of internal strengths and weaknesses.There are many aspects to an organization that can be reviewed a couple of key parts to be reviewed would be resources available and core competencies. Resources can fall into two categories, tangible and intangible. Steps 2 and 3 provide a good foundation of information for step 4, which is SWOT Analysis and Strategy Formulation. Once the SWOT analysis is complete, there are several different strategies to consider based on the type of business that is in operation. For BP and this situation, I would think that they would need to implement a functional strategy.Once the type of strategy has been decided upon, step 5 is strategy implementation. During this step, BP would need to ensure that the strategy is being implemented efficiently and effectively. Once implemented, this takes us to the final step, which is strategic control. I believe this control will not be in place until the leak has been contained. In this final step, typically there is a system to help support management in evaluating how the organization is doing with the strategy. Overall, BP has an enormous task that they are faced with. It will take good planning and strategy to resolve the issue as quickly as possible.They are faced with having to contain one of the largest oil spills in US history. It is hard to accurately measure the true amount of oil that is leaking from the well; however there are several estimates of how much oil is leaking per day, ranging from 1000 to 70,000 barrels. As of May 13, 2010, BP has had to resort to alternate plans due to their initial attempt failing. It will be interesting to watch the news and see how BP continues to manage the situation. It is almost guaranteed that the government will intervene at some point, possibly by implementing new laws around off shore drilling.We can only hope that the impact to the environment is not too great, but there have already been reports of dead animals and tar balls washing ashore. It is hard to think that there would be no impact with so much oil leaking into the ocean. I still remember the images from the Exxon Valdez oil spill in 1989. I can only imagine we will start to see some of t he same images in the future from the Deepwater Horizon spill. Let’s hope that BP’s management staff has all the tools necessary to have a strong plan in place to rectify this problem. Bibliography Robertson, C & Lipton, E (2010, April 30). BP Is Criticized Over Oil Spill, but U.S. Missed Chances to Act. New York Times. Retrieved May 11, 2010, from http://www. nytimes. com/2010/05/01/us/01gulf. html The Valdez Oil Spill. (n. d. ). Retrieved May 11, 2010, from http://www. exxonmobil. com/corporate/about_issues_valdez. aspx Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill. (n. d. ). Retrieved May 11, 2010, from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Deepwater_Horizon_oil_spill Gulf Oil Spill Layers. (n. d. ). Retrieved May 13, 2010, from http://maps. google. com/maps/mpl? moduleurl=http://mw1. google. com/mw-earth-vectordb/disaster/gulf_oil_spill/gulf_oil_mapplet. xml&mapclient=google&hl=en Weber, H. amp; Burdeau, C (2010, May 6). Expedition to contain oil leak begins in Gulf. Associated Press. Retr ieved May 11, 2010, from http://www. google. com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5gIXWYBTpLtSayJtg41LKXpxSxVPAD9FH9GN80 Resnick-Ault, J. & Polson, C (2010, May 11). BP to Try Again to Control Oil Leak as Hearings Start (Update3). Bloomberg Businessweek. Retrieved May 13, 2010, from http://www. businessweek. com/news/2010-05-11/bp-to-try-again-to-control-oil-leak-as-hearings-start-update3-. html What we stand for. (n. d. ). Retrieved May 13, 2010, from http://www. bp. com/sectiongenericarticle. do? categoryId=9002630&contentId=7005204

10 Phosphorus Facts (P or Atomic Number 15)

Phosphorus is element 15 on the periodic table, with the element symbol P. Because it is so chemically reactive, phosphorus is never found free in nature, yet you encounter this element in compounds and in your body. Here are 10 interesting facts about phosphorus: Fast Facts: Phosphorus Element Name: PhosphorusElement Symbol: PAtomic Number: 15Classification: Group 15; Pnictogen; NonmetalAppearance: Appearance depends on the allotrope. Phosphorus is a solid at room temperature. It may be white, yellow, red, violet, or black.Electron Configuration:  [Ne] 3s2  3p3Discovery: Recognized as an element by Antoine Lavoisier (1777), but officially discovered by Hennig Brand (1669). Interesting Phosphorus Facts Phosphorus was discovered in 1669 by Hennig Brand in Germany. Brand isolated phosphorus from urine. The discovery made Brand the first person to discover a new element. Other elements such as gold and iron were known before that, but no specific person found them.Brand called the new element cold fire because it glowed in the dark. The name of the element comes from the Greek word phosphoros, which means bringer of light. The form of phosphorus Brand discovered was white phosphorus, which reacts with oxygen in air to produce a green-white light. Although you might think the glow would be phosphorescence, phosphorus is chemiluminescent and not phosphorescent. Only the white allotrope or form of phosphorus glows in the dark.Some texts refer to phosphorus as the Devils Element because of its eerie glow, tendency to burst into flame, and because it was the 13th known element.Like other nonmetals, pure phosphorus assumes markedly different forms. There are at least five phosphorus allotro pes. In addition to white phosphorus, there is red, violet, and black phosphorus. Under ordinary conditions, red and white phosphorus are the most common forms.While the properties of phosphorus depend on the allotrope, they share common nonmetallic characteristics. Phosphorus is a poor conductor of heat and electricity, except black phosphorus. All types of phosphorus are solid at room temperature. The white form (sometimes called yellow phosphorus) resembles wax, the red and violet forms are noncrystalline solids, while the black allotrope resembles graphite in pencil lead. The pure element is reactive, so much so that the white form will ignite spontaneously in air. Phosphorus typically has an oxidation state of 3 or 5.Phosphorus is essential to living organisms. There are about 750 grams of phosphorus in the average adult. In the human body, its found in DNA, bones, and as an ion used for muscle contraction and nerve conduction. Pure phosphorus, however, can be deadly. White pho sphorus, in particular, is associated with negative health effects. Matches made using white phosphorus are associated with a disease known as phossy jaw which causes disfiguration and death. Contact with white phosphorus can cause chemical burns. Red phosphorus is a safer alternative and is considered non-toxic.Natural phosphorus consists of one stable isotope, phosphorus-31. At least 23 isotopes of the element are known.The primary use of phosphorus is for fertilizer production. The element is also used in flares, safety matches, light-emitting diodes, and steel production. Phosphates are used in some detergents. Red phosphorus is also one of the chemicals used in illegal production of methamphetamines.According to a study published in the Proceedings of the National Academies of Sciences, phosphorus may have been brought to Earth by meteorites. The release of phosphorus compounds seen early in Earths history (yet not today) contributed to the conditions needed for the origin of l ife. Phosphorus is abundant in the Earths crust at a concentration of about 1,050 parts per million, by weight.While its certainly possible to isolate phosphorus from urine or bone, today the element is isolated from phosphate-bearing minerals. Phosphorus is obtained from calcium phosphate by heating the rock in a furnace to yield tetraphosphorus vapor. The vapor is condensed into phosphorus underwater to prevent ignition. Sources Greenwood, N. N.; Earnshaw, A. (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd Ed.), Oxford:Butterworth-Heinemann.Hammond, C. R. (2000).  The Elements, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics  (81st ed.). CRC press.​Meija, J.; et al. (2016). Atomic weights of the elements 2013 (IUPAC Technical Report). Pure and Applied Chemistry. 88 (3): 265–91.Weast, Robert (1984).  CRC, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Boca Raton, Florida: Chemical Rubber Company Publishing. pp.  E110.